- In 1866, Rishi Raj Narayana Bose expressed early thoughts on Hindu revivalism and nationalism, inspiring figures like Swami Dayanand and Bankim Chandra and leading to the annual Hindu Mela.
- Bengali thinker Chandra Nath Basu first used the term in 1892, advocating Advaita Vedanta and Hindus’ unique spiritual consciousness.
- Lokmanya Tilak attempted to define Hindutva based on the infallibility of the Vedas and multiple paths to spirituality but faced criticism for excluding diverse beliefs within Hinduism.
- Veer Savarkar’s work distinguished Hindu Dharma from Hindutva, emphasizing the cultural, linguistic, social, and political dimensions, aiming to unify and inspire Hindus globally.
- The Hindu diaspora maintains a deep connection to Bharat, establishing temples and cultural centers worldwide, contributing to their adopted countries, and standing against injustice, embodying the principles of Hindutva.
Hindutva is one of the most reviled terms associated with Hindus, often decried as a Hindu-centric right-wing political ideology that allegedly promotes violence against minorities, especially Muslims. This is how Wikipedia chooses to describe this term[1]:
Hindutva is a political ideology encompassing the cultural justification of Hindu nationalism and the belief in establishing Hindu hegemony within India. The political ideology was formulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1922… Inspired by European fascism, the Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of right-wing extremism, and as “almost fascist in the classical sense”, adhering to a concept of homogenized majority and cultural hegemony. Some have also described Hindutva as a separatist ideology. Some analysts dispute the identification of Hindutva with fascism and suggest Hindutva is an extreme form of conservatism or ethno-nationalism.
By contrast, Wikipedia has this to say about Islamism[2]:
Islamism (also often called political Islam) is a religio-political ideology. The advocates of Islamism, also known as “al-Islamiyyun,” are dedicated to realizing their ideological interpretation of Islam within the context of the state or society. The majority of them are affiliated with Islamic institutions or social mobilization movements, often designated as “al-harakat al-Islamiyyah.” Islamists emphasize the implementation of sharia, pan-Islamic political unity, the creation of Islamic states, (eventually unified), and rejection of non-Muslim influences—particularly Western or universal economic, military, political, social, or cultural. In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory, purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into “social and political as well as personal life”; and in particular “reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam” (i.e. Sharia).
Notice the stark difference in the words used to describe these two concepts. Islamism, despite its long history of violence and terrorism, is presented as a harmless effort to revive Islam’s past glory, whereas Hindutva, with no history of organized violence, is depicted as a fascist ideology to establish Hindu cultural dominance.
Against this backdrop, we trace the history of the term, explore the key figures who contributed to its development, and examine their motivations.
[Note: This article is inspired by a 2021 panel discussion featuring Dr. Shreerang Godbole and Saumitra Gokhale. A complete video recording of the discussion can be accessed here]
Key Figures Shaping Hindutva
There are a number of prominent personalities who have contributed to the philosophy of the Hindutva movement. First, we have Rishi Raj Narayana Bose (1826-1899)[3], a notable thinker and writer. Following him is Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883)[4], the founder of the Arya Samaj, a reform movement advocating a return to the Vedas. Next is Swami Vivekananda (183-1902)[5], renowned for his role in introducing the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world. Lokmanya Tilak (1856-1920)[6], a prominent independence activist, also significantly influenced Hindutva philosophy.
Yogi Aurobindo (1872-1950)[7], the maternal grandson of Rishi Raj Narayana Bose, was a revolutionary, philosopher, and spiritual leader. Ganesh Damodar (1879-1945)[8], also known as Babarao Savarkar, was a revolutionary and the elder brother of the more famous Vir Savarkar (1883-1966), a key proponent of Hindutva. Lastly, we have M.S. Golwalkar (1906-1973)[9], commonly known as Guruji, who was the second chief of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and a co-founder of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad.
Chandra Nath Basu first used the term “Hindutva” In his book (in Bengali), “Hindutva: Hindur Prakrita Itihas,” written in 1892.
These figures collectively contributed to the development and propagation of Hindutva, each bringing their unique perspectives and efforts to the movement. These individuals significantly shaped the philosophy of the Hindutva movement, but none of them actually coined the term “Hindutva.” The credit for that goes to a Bengali thinker and author named Chandra Nath Basu (1844-1910)[10]. He first used the term “Hindutva” In his book (in Bengali), “Hindutva: Hindur Prakrita Itihas,” written in 1892. Chandra Basu advocated an Advaita Vedanta form of thought and believed that Hindus were unique in achieving spiritual consciousness, realizing that humanity is a form of divinity.
Historical Context and Evolution
Long before Chandra Basu, in 1866, Rishi Raj Narayana Bose, who was the headmaster of a school in Kolkata, expressed his thoughts on Hindu revivalism and Hindu nationalism in the Indian context. He was an influential thinker who inspired others like Swami Dayanand and Bankim Chandra. He also influenced his grandson, Yogi Aurobindo, and two young men, Navagopal Mitra[11] and Vijendranath Tagore[12], the brother of Rabindranath Tagore. Together, they founded the Hindu Mela[13] in 1867, an event held annually for 13 years until 1880.
This was during a time when India was under British colonial rule, and the British believed it was their duty to civilize the “heathens,” including the Hindus of India. Imagine the stir caused when Raj Narayana Bose organized a lecture in 1866 in Kolkata, the capital of British India, asserting the superiority of Hinduism over other religions.
In his lecture, Raj Narayana Bose outlined 12 points highlighting why he believed Hinduism was superior to other religions. He argued that Hinduism owes its name to no single person and has no mediator between God and man. Hindus worship God at all times, whether during business or pleasure, and they worship God for the sake of God, practicing virtue for the sake of virtue, not for eternal happiness in an imaginary heaven. He also stated that Hinduism promotes universal benevolence and is non-sectarian, non-proselytizing, and preeminently tolerant. Its history dates back to ancient times.
The next significant attempt to define a Hindu came from Lokmanya Tilak. He provided a definition in six Sanskrit lines, but these lines were not created simultaneously. The first two lines were part of a speech he gave at a British festival in 1900. In this speech, he defined Hindu Dharma based on three key attributes: the infallibility of the Vedas, the acceptance of multiple paths to spirituality, and the non-insistence of any single mode of worship.
In 1915, Tilak added four more lines in a magazine, further describing a Hindu individual. He stated that a Hindu is someone who accepts the Dharma defined in the earlier lines, follows rituals according to the Shruti, Smriti, and Puranas, acts with faith and devotion, and adheres to conduct prescribed by the Shastras. This, according to Tilak, constitutes a Sanatana Dharma Hindu.
However, Tilak’s definition had a significant flaw: it failed to take into account the diversity of beliefs within Hinduism. By insisting on the infallibility of the Vedas, he excluded many communities that are considered part of the Hindu fold, such as Jains, Buddhists, and Lingayats, but did not regard the Vedas as infallible.
Many prominent figures have contributed to the philosophical contours of Hindutva, but only three have authored notable books on the subject. We’ll focus on one central figure but also briefly mention the others. Babarao Savarkar (Ganesh Damodar Savarkar) wrote a Marathi book called “Rashtra Mimansa” [14] in 1934, meaning “Elucidation of the Nation.” This 78-page book influenced many, including M.S. Golwalkar (Guruji), who in 1939 abridged and translated it into a 78-page book titled “We, or Our Nationhood Defined.” [15] Contrary to popular belief, Golwalkar’s book is not just a translation of Rashta Mimansa but includes his own thoughts as well.
Vir Sarvarkar
Finally, we focus on Vir Savarkar, a pivotal figure in Hindutva. His writings and thoughts significantly shaped the ideology, making his contributions essential for understanding Hindutva’s evolution. Examining Savarkar’s influence offers deeper insights into Hindutva’s complex nature, historical context, and its impact on contemporary Indian society.
Although Savarkar’s literary work fills more than 10,000 pages, his key Hindutva writings can be found mainly in three books. The first and most important is his seminal book, “Hindutva,”[16] which is freely available online and highly recommended for reading. The second book, “Hindu Rashtra Darshan,” [17] is a collection of his six presidential speeches to the Hindu Mahasabha sessions from 1937 to 1942. The third book is a Marathi work titled “Hindutvache Panch Pran,” which covers the points made in the first two books.
Savarkar’s fascination with the question of “Who is a Hindu?” began even when he was a revolutionary in London between 1906 and 1910. However, he was preoccupied with other pressing issues at the time. It was only during his imprisonment in the Cellular Jail in the Andamans that he devoted significant energy and thought to this question, engaging in discussions with fellow political prisoners. Later, in Ratnagiri Jail in Maharashtra, after his release from the Cellular Jail, he secretly wrote his book “Hindutva” under the pseudonym “Maratha.” The first edition of the book was published in May 1923.
“Hindutva” is a seminal work that continues to be the intellectual foundation of the contemporary Hindu movement nearly 100 years after it was written. Savarkar, being a poet and a great author, opens the book by quoting Shakespeare, “What’s in a name?” He argues that names are significant and cannot be arbitrarily changed. For instance, Ayodhya cannot be called Honolulu, and George Washington cannot be called Genghis Khan. Similarly, the name Hindutva carries profound meaning and significance, which is why many have fought to preserve it.
Savarkar, also a skilled barrister, emphasizes the importance of precise language. He famously said, “Confusion in words leads to confusion in thoughts.” Therefore, he distinguishes between two related terms: Hindu and Hindutva. According to him, Hindu Dharma is a theory or code based on spiritual or religious systems. It is a collective term for the spiritual traditions and sects that consider Bharat (India) to be their fatherland (Pitrubhumi) and holy land (Punyabhumi).
(Savarkar) envisioned a unified Hindu community that embodies the spirit and principles of Hindutva, encompassing all aspects of their identity and heritage.
However, Hindutva is even more comprehensive. While Hindu Dharma is broad, it is still a subset of the wider term Hindutva. Hindutva encompasses not only the religious aspects of the Hindu people but also their cultural, linguistic, social, and political dimensions. It is akin to Hindu polity, and if one were to translate it into English, the closest term would be “Hinduness,” capturing the essence of being Hindu.
In addressing a global Hindu diaspora, Savarkar referred to the collective Hindu world as “Hindudom.” He envisioned a unified Hindu community that embodies the spirit and principles of Hindutva, encompassing all aspects of their identity and heritage.
Understanding Savarkar’s distinction between Hindu, Hindutva, and Hindudom helps us appreciate the depth and breadth of his vision for a unified Hindu identity rooted in cultural and spiritual heritage yet inclusive of all facets of life.
Who is a Hindu?
Right at the beginning, Savarkar asserts that the word “Hindu” is not of foreign origin, contrary to the common belief that it was given to us by Arabs or Persians. He explains that our ancestors’ civilization flourished along the banks of the seven rivers, known as Saptasindhu. Of these rivers, the Sindhu or Indus River was a prominent symbol of their shared nationality and culture. In gratitude to these rivers, particularly the Sindhu, Savarkar says our ancestors named their nation and people after it.
Savarkar points out some linguistic rules: in Prakrit, a language from which many of our sister languages derive, the syllable “Sah” becomes “Hah.” For example, “saptaha” becomes “haptaha.” Similarly, “Sindhu” became “Hindu.” He argues that if Prakrit is older, then “Hindu” could be an older term than “Sindhu.” Other nations, including the Persians, called us Hindus, the Greeks called us Indos, and the Chinese called us Indu. Therefore, “Hindu” is a geographical concept with cultural connotations.
According to Savarkar, there are two criteria for defining a person as a Hindu. First, a Hindu is someone whose origins can be traced to the land that extends from the Sindhu River to the seas. Second, a Hindu regards this land as their holy land and has inherited and claimed the Hindu civilization with its history, heroes, literature, art, law, festivals, rites, and rituals.
Savarkar beautifully encapsulates this definition in a Sanskrit verse, highlighting that anyone who considers this land their fatherland and holy land is a Hindu. He emphasizes that the definition of Hindutva should not exclude any significant section of the people. Therefore, Hindutva includes not only those who follow the Vedas but also Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, Arya Samajis, Vaishnavas, Shaivas, Lingayats, and even so-called animists.
Savarkar is also against the misuse of the term Hindu. He insists that the definition should reflect reality and cannot be too rigid or too elastic. He acknowledges that some Indians, originally Hindus, have been forcibly converted to non-Hindu religions. He suggests that they can be considered Hindus again if they return to their original faith, but until then, they cannot be recognized as Hindus because their new faiths prioritize other holy lands above their fatherland.
Regarding the Hindu diaspora, Savarkar states that living outside India does not disqualify someone from being a Hindu. He encourages Hindus to contribute positively to humanity wherever they live. Hindutva, he says, does not limit their aspirations but rather urges them to expand their influence globally.
Savarkar recognizes that his definition of Hindutva cannot be too rigid but must have some boundaries. He admits there are exceptions, such as Sister Nivedita and Dr. Annie Besant, who do not fit his strict definition but are still considered Hindus. Despite these nuances, Savarkar was first and foremost a humanist. He concludes his seminal book with a hopeful message that Hindutva will eventually merge into humanism.
Savarkar’s work on Hindutva provides a broad yet precise definition of what it means to be a Hindu. He emphasizes the cultural, geographical, and spiritual dimensions of Hindu identity, ensuring that it is inclusive of various sects and beliefs within the broader Hindu civilization.
He envisions a future where the principles of the Gita and the teachings of Buddha guide the world. Savarkar believes that a Hindu is most truly a Hindu when he embraces universal humanism. He cites the Maharashtrian saint Tukaram, who said, “The limits of the universe are the frontiers of my country.”
It is a testament to Savarkar’s insight that the Indian Constitution, while not explicitly defining a Hindu, describes who is a Hindu in a manner similar to Savarkar’s definition. His inclusive definition has influenced organizations like the Vishwa Hindu Parishad of America, which uses it to admit members.
In summary, Savarkar’s work on Hindutva provides a broad yet precise definition of what it means to be a Hindu. He emphasizes the cultural, geographical, and spiritual dimensions of Hindu identity, ensuring that it is inclusive of various sects and beliefs within the broader Hindu civilization. His vision was not only to define Hindutva but to unite and inspire Hindus globally, promoting a sense of shared heritage and common purpose. Thank you for your time and attention.
Hindutva and the Hindu Diaspora
The definitions of Hindutva developed by scholars and leaders like Chandranath Basu, Lokmanya Tilak, Savarkar, and Guruji Golwalkar were created in specific contexts within Bharat. However, this does not mean that Hindus and Hindutva did not exist before these definitions. In fact, the concept of Hindutva has existed and evolved over millennia. Interestingly, defining Hindutva, and by inference, Hindu Dharma, often draws more opposition from within the Hindu community than from outside. Hindus generally resist drawing strict borders for definitions, feeling that it may lead to exclusion. However, defining Hindutva is not about excluding others; it’s about understanding our identity while maintaining the belief that the world is a family.
Veer Savarkar emphasized that while we start with our identity, we ultimately transcend it, reflecting the universal philosophy of Hinduism. Someone who embraces this expansive view is, in essence, a Hindu.
Veer Savarkar emphasized that while we start with our identity, we ultimately transcend it, reflecting the universal philosophy of Hinduism. Someone who embraces this expansive view is, in essence, a Hindu. This makes it easier to define the term “Hindu.” In the definitions provided by Savarkar and Golwalkar, the concepts of “Pitrabhumi” (Fatherland) and “Punyabhumi” (Holy Land) are central. Sometimes, “Matrubhumi” (Motherland) is also used to denote the cultural or spiritual motherland.
For Hindus living outside Bharat, the cultural unity emphasized by Savarkar and Golwalkar is vital. Despite following various paths, Hindus share a common culture. Bharat is considered the Punyabhumi, not just as the land of ancestors but as a sacred land, the cradle of Hindu civilization. This land is where great intellectual and spiritual traditions developed, thanks to the rishis, gurus, arhats, and bhikshus who lived, worked, and imparted knowledge there.
Bharat is dotted with numerous sacred pilgrimage sites, such as the Char Dham, Jyotirlingas, Shakti Peethas, places related to Bhagwan Buddha’s life, Jain pilgrimage sites, Sikh pilgrimage sites, and locations significant to the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These sites are not just spiritual but also represent places where individuals lived exemplary lives according to Dharma and made significant sacrifices.
For Hindus, Bharat remains our cultural and spiritual motherland, no matter where we live in the world.
For Hindus, Bharat remains our cultural and spiritual motherland, no matter where we live in the world. Even after generations of living abroad, Hindus continue to look towards Bharat as their Punyabhumi. It is not only the land of our ancestors but also the sacred geography where our spiritual heritage is rooted. This profound connection to Bharat is what unites Hindus globally, giving them a shared identity and a sense of belonging.
This deep-seated attachment to the land of their ancestors is widely prevalent across the Hindu diaspora. No matter how many generations they have lived there, they love their adopted countries and are proud to belong to places like Guyana, Trinidad, or South Africa. Yet, they hold a special place in their hearts for Bharat (India). This deep connection to Bharat is a testament to the enduring nature of Hindu identity, even among those who live far from their ancestral homeland.
Common Culture and Values
So, what is this common culture? Veer Savarkar’s definition of Hindu Dharma is often summarized with terms like “Indic traditions,” which include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Traditionally, these were referred to as Vedic or Shramana Parampara. Despite the diversity within these traditions, there are common threads that unite them under the umbrella of the Dharma traditions of Bharat. These commonalities include:
- Quest for Ultimate Truth and Happiness: All these traditions seek ultimate truth and lasting happiness.
- Goal of Liberation: They share the goal of liberation (moksha or nirvana).
- Experiential Approach: They emphasize not just understanding but experiencing and realizing spiritual truths.
- Holistic Thinking: They advocate for a balanced life, encompassing both material and spiritual fulfillment.
This comprehensive approach is often misunderstood as otherworldly. However, it is deeply rooted in holistic thinking. It aims to live a complete life in this world while seeking spiritual transcendence.
When we look at the virtues taught by these traditions, whether it’s the moral teachings in the Bhagavad Gita, Jain vows (vratas), the Buddhist Eightfold Path, or the Sikh codes of conduct (Maryada), they all emphasize leading a virtuous life. These virtues form a common moral foundation across these traditions.
Hindutva, as defined by Savarkar, refers to the culture that has nurtured the development of these traditions over millennia. This culture is not just about music and dance but about values that people are willing to live by and, if necessary, make supreme sacrifices for. It’s like the organizational culture of a company but on a much larger, national scale.
Professor Dharam Bhawuk from the University of Hawaii has written about how this culture has given rise to so many spiritual geniuses in Bharat. He argues that a society and culture that values certain ideals will naturally nurture and produce geniuses in those areas. Bharat’s culture, which values spiritual pursuits, has historically produced many spiritual leaders and thinkers.
Some core truths about our culture that unite us are deeply rooted in our minds and will never go away. For example, the belief that truth is one but expressed in many ways is fundamental. This belief fosters respect and acceptance of diverse paths to the divine. It encourages the single-minded pursuit of one’s path while avoiding narrow-minded extremism about others’ paths.
We see the entire creation as pervaded by the same divine energy, attaching sacredness to everything and everyone, from Mother Earth to all living beings. This view underscores the unity in diversity and the potential for every individual to achieve spiritual greatness.
Our culture also emphasizes social cohesion without losing plurality. We strive to create a society based on Dharma, supported by traditions, rituals, festivals, and observances that foster this social cohesion. These elements are integral to our expression of culture and are essential for maintaining our identity, especially in the diaspora.
The Hindu diaspora, spread across the globe, continues to maintain this connection to Bharat and its cultural roots. For instance, wherever Hindus go, they establish temples (Mandirs) as centers of cultural and spiritual life. In Southeast Asia, the influence of Hindu civilization can still be seen in countries like Indonesia, particularly in Bali, where Hindu practices are part of daily life.
Savarkar’s vision of Hindutva encompasses this cultural and spiritual unity, transcending geographical boundaries. It highlights the importance of maintaining a connection to Bharat while integrating into and contributing to the global community.
In countries known as Girmitiya countries, like those in the Caribbean, the first generations of Hindu laborers established temples and maintained their cultural identity despite significant hardships. They created new pilgrimage sites, like Ganga Talao in Mauritius and Ganga Dhara in Trinidad, to keep their spiritual traditions alive. These sites became sacred to them, embodying the essence of Ganga, even in their new homes.
In more recent diasporas, such as in Western countries, we see similar efforts to maintain cultural identity. In the United States, for example, Hindus visit the Balaji Temple in Pittsburgh, perform rituals, and undertake pilgrimages to places associated with significant events in Hindu history, like the site of Swami Vivekananda’s speeches in Chicago.
Savarkar’s vision of Hindutva encompasses this cultural and spiritual unity, transcending geographical boundaries. It highlights the importance of maintaining a connection to Bharat while integrating into and contributing to the global community. This vision is not about rigid definitions but about embracing a shared heritage and identity that evolves and adapts over time.
Standing Against Injustice
In the diaspora, Hindus have always stood up against injustice, embodying the principle of resisting a-dharma (unrighteousness). For instance, in Sri Lanka, when Christian missionaries aggressively targeted the Hindu community, it was leaders like Arumuga Navalar who intellectually resisted and prevented mass conversions. Similarly, in Trinidad and Tobago, a sadhu (holy man) fought back when his temple was demolished by the colonial government, rebuilding it on a platform in the sea. More recently, in Malaysia, Hindus gathered in large numbers in Kuala Lumpur to protest discrimination against their community. Now, in Western countries, Hindus are resisting Hinduphobia in academia and media.
Hindus have a long tradition of standing against injustice, not just for their own community but for the greater good of all people. In South Africa, for example, Hindus stood shoulder to shoulder with Nelson Mandela in the fight against apartheid and discrimination. This spirit of resistance is ingrained in our culture and values.
While fighting against a-dharma, Hindus have also consistently thought about the welfare of all humanity. This is evident through various seva (service) activities, the promotion of International Yoga Day, and the global spread of Ayurveda. Even in other fields, Hindus contribute to the greater good, often unconsciously upholding their cultural values.
Hindutva, with its deep-rooted cultural and spiritual principles, continues to be vibrant and relevant. While its expressions may evolve to meet new challenges, its core character remains unchanged. It will always respond uniquely and creatively to changing circumstances.
A book called “The India Way“[18] by some Wharton School professors discusses how Indian CEOs operate differently, emphasizing holistic thinking and the greater good. Despite having a colonial education, the fundamental values of Hindutva (Hindu culture and identity) remain strong within us. These values guide our actions and bind us together, no matter where we are in the world.
Hindutva, with its deep-rooted cultural and spiritual principles, continues to be vibrant and relevant. While its expressions may evolve to meet new challenges, its core character remains unchanged. It will always respond uniquely and creatively to changing circumstances.
Concluding thoughts
Reflecting on the Ramleela (a traditional dramatic folk re-enactment of the life of Lord Rama) in Trinidad and Tobago, the Nobel Laureate Derek Walcott noted, “It was as if, on the edge of the central place, there was another plateau, a raft on which the Ramayana would be performed in this ocean of cane. They were not amateurs but believers. They did not have to psych themselves up to play the roles; their acting was as natural as belief.” What he initially perceived as a simple theatrical performance, he said, was actually a profound expression of faith. The participants’ joy and conviction were palpable, illustrating how deeply they believed in the sacredness of the text and the traditions of Bharat.
This deep sense of belief and cultural continuity is what Hindus carry with them, integrating it into their lives even in new geographies and countries. This universal aspect of Hindutva ensures that wherever Hindus go, they bring with them a piece of their spiritual and cultural heritage, enriching their new homes while maintaining their connection to Bharat.
Citations
[1] Hindutva; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindutva
[2] Islamism; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism
[3] Rajnarayan Bose; https://indianculture.gov.in/node/2827792
[4] Dayananda Saraswati; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati
[5] Wami Vivekananada; https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/swami-vivekananda.html
[6] Lokmanya Tilak; Bal Gangadhar Tilak | Biography, Books, & Facts | Britannica
[7] Sri Aurobindo; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo
[8] Ganesh Damodar Savarkar; https://wikibio.in/ganesh-damodar-savarkar/
[9] M.S. Golwalkar; M. S. Golwalkar – Wikipedia
[10] Chandranath Basu; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandranath_Basu
[11] Nabagopal Mitra – Profile, Biography and Life History | Veethi; https://www.veethi.com/india-people/nabagopal_mitra-profile-3825-30.htm
[12] Dwijendranath Tagore; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwijendranath_Tagore
[13] Hindu Mela; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_Mela
[14] Rashtra Mimansa : GD Savarkar; https://archive.org/details/rastra-mimansa
[15] We Or Our Nationhood defined: Golwalkar,m.s.; https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66003
[16] hindutva-vinayak-damodar-savarkar-pdf : Vinayak Damodar Savarkar; https://archive.org/details/hindutva-vinayak-damodar-savarkar-pdf
[17] Hindu-rashtra-darshan-en-v002.pdf (savarkar.org); https://savarkar.org/en/pdfs/hindu-rashtra-darshan-en-v002.pdf
[18] The India Way; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_India_Way